Scientific reference
Lead: element information, properties and uses
Royal Society of Chemistry · Accessed September 2026
Element identity, physical properties and established uses. Older market-share figures on the page are not used here.
The evidence library
Keep the sources
within reach.
The publications behind the applications, research notes and stewardship principles. Read the scope before using the statistic.
Reviewed 29 September 2026. Official guidance, scientific references, manufacturer information and industry-commissioned research serve different purposes. Sources are labelled accordingly.
The circularity explorer uses hypothetical inputs. It does not import measured collection or processing rates, and its results should not be used as an environmental certification.
Public research
Technology Strategy Assessment: Lead-Acid Batteries
US Department of Energy · July 2023
Established applications, performance constraints and research priorities; not a universal product-performance guarantee.
Industry-commissioned study
Collection and recycling of lead-based automotive batteries in Europe
IHS Markit · March 2020 · data for 2015–2017
Commissioned by ACEA, JAMA, KAMA, EUROBAT and ILA. Covers fourteen European markets; calculated collection and recycling rate 97.3%.
Public health authority
Lead poisoning and health
World Health Organization · Accessed September 2026
Health effects and exposure routes. Recycling does not make lead biologically harmless.
Public health authority
Recycling used lead-acid batteries: health considerations
World Health Organization · 2017
Risks from inadequately controlled recycling and the importance of protecting workers and surrounding communities.
Workplace safety authority
Action required by employers: working with lead
UK Health and Safety Executive · Accessed September 2026
Risk assessment, exposure controls, hygiene, training and monitoring. Local legal duties vary by jurisdiction.
Workplace safety authority
Construction hazardous substances: lead
UK Health and Safety Executive · 12 November 2024
How construction work can create exposure and how controls should be planned and reviewed.
International safety guidance
Radiation protection and safety in medical uses: diagnostic facility design
International Atomic Energy Agency · SSG-46 · accessed September 2026
Shielding is part of a facility-specific radiation protection design, including barriers, doors and beam directions.
Heritage authority
Repair or renew the roof in an older home
Historic England · Accessed September 2026
Lead sheet, flashings, movement and specialist repair in the context of historic buildings.
Heritage authority
Repair of places of worship using replacement materials
Historic England · Accessed September 2026
Material selection may need to account for theft risk and appropriate alternatives as well as conservation.
Manufacturer technical information
Accessories for oil- and gas-filled cables
NKT · Accessed September 2026
Examples of specific cable constructions with lead sheaths; not evidence that all modern power cables contain lead.
Manufacturer technical perspective
Dynamic cables: unlocking offshore wind development
Nexans · 2024
Explains radial water barriers and the different mechanical demands of dynamic cable systems.
Public authority
Waste batteries recycling targets remain fit for purpose
European Commission · 11 September 2026
The Commission’s review of recycling efficiency and material recovery targets. A policy target is not an observed collection rate.
Public authority
New rules to boost recycling efficiency from waste batteries
European Commission · 4 July 2025
Calculation and verification rules distinguish battery recycling efficiency from recovery of individual materials.
Visuals & typography
A conceptual material study.
The sculptural loop is an original AI-generated illustration created for Element82. It expresses the idea of continued material use; it does not depict a verified lead product or recycling process.
Nimbus Sans fonts and their source files are included with the site under the AGPL licence with the font exception. The typographic identity and favicon were created for this project.